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Because oxidative fibers contain more myoglobin medications hyperkalemia order kemadrin 5 mg with mastercard, oxygen diffusion is faster than in glycolytic fibers. Oxidative fibers are described as red muscle because large amounts of myoglobin give them their characteristic color. In addition to myoglobin, oxidative fibers have smaller diameters, so the distance through which oxygen must diffuse before reaching the mitochondria is shorter. Because oxidative fibers have Fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscles Slow-twitch oxidative muscle has large amounts of red myoglobin, numerous mitochondria, and extensive capillary blood supply, in contrast to fast-twitch glycolytic muscle. The combination of larger size, less myoglobin, and fewer blood vessels means that glycolytic fibers are more likely to run out of oxygen after repeated contractions. Type 2A fast-twitch oxidative-glycolytic fibers exhibit properties of both oxidative and glycolytic fibers. Type 2A fibers, like type 1 slow-twitch fibers, are classified as red muscle because of their myoglobin content. Human muscles are a mixture of fiber types, with the ratio of types varying from muscle to muscle and from one individual to another. For example, who would have more fast-twitch fibers in leg muscles, a marathon runner or a high-jumper Resting Fiber Length Affects Tension In a muscle fiber, the tension developed during a twitch is a direct reflection of the length of individual sarcomeres before contraction begins (fig. Each sarcomere contracts with optimum force if it is at optimum length (neither too long nor too short) before the contraction begins. Fortunately, the normal resting length of skeletal muscles usually ensures that sarcomeres are at optimum length when they begin a contraction. The sliding filament theory predicts that the tension generated by a muscle fiber is directly proportional to the number of crossbridges formed between the thick and thin filaments. This means that in the initial part of the contraction, the sliding filaments interact only minimally and therefore cannot generate much force. Consequently, the thick filaments can move the thin filaments only a short distance before the thin actin filaments from opposite ends of the sarcomere start to overlap. Thus, the development of single-twitch tension in a muscle fiber is a passive property that depends on filament overlap and sarcomere length. Decreased length Optimal resting length Increased length Force of Contraction Increases with Summation Although we have just seen that single-twitch tension is determined by the length of the sarcomere, it is important to note that a single twitch does not represent the maximum force that a muscle fiber can develop. The force generated by the contraction of a single muscle fiber can be increased by increasing the rate (frequency) at which muscle action potentials stimulate the muscle fiber. If repeated action potentials are separated by long intervals of time, the muscle fiber has time to relax completely between stimuli (fig. This process is known as summation and is similar to the temporal summation of graded potentials that takes place in neurons [p. If action potentials continue to stimulate the muscle fiber repeatedly at short intervals (high frequency), relaxation between contractions diminishes until the muscle fiber achieves a state of maximal contraction known as tetanus.

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Without a blood supply medicine head order 5 mg kemadrin otc, nutrients and oxygen must reach the cells of cartilage by diffusion. We examine the structure and formation of bone along with calcium metabolism later [Chapter 23]. Brown fat is composed of adipose cells that contain multiple lipid droplets rather than a single large droplet. This type of fat has been known for many years to play an important role in temperature regulation in infants. Replacing lost or damaged cartilage has moved from the realm of science fiction into reality. Researchers have developed a process in which they take a cartilage sample from a patient and put it into a tissue culture medium to reproduce. Once returned to the body, the chondrocytes secrete matrix and help repair the damaged cartilage. A different method for cartilage repair being used outside the United States is treatment with stem cells derived from bone marrow. Both therapies have proved to be effective treatments for selected cartilage problems. The most common types are loose and dense connective tissue, adipose tissue, blood, cartilage, and bone. By many estimates, connective tissues are the most abundant of the tissue types as they are a component of most organs. Collagen fibers Free macrophage Elastic fibers Fibroblasts are cells that secrete matrix proteins. Light micrograph of loose connective tissue Ground substance is the matrix of loose connective tissue. Matrix (c) Dense Regular Connective Tissue Collagen fibers of tendon are densely packed into parallel bundles. Collagen fibers Light micrograph of bone Chondrocytes Matrix Light micrograph of tendon Light micrograph of hyaline cartilage (d) Blood Blood consists of liquid matrix (plasma) plus red and white blood cells and the cell fragments called platelets. Red blood cell Platelet White Blood Cells Lymphocyte Neutrophil Eosinophil (e) Adipose Tissue In white fat, the cell cytoplasm is almost entirely filled with lipid droplets. Nucleus Lipid droplets Light micrograph of a blood smear Light micrograph of adipose tissue 107 108 chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues Blood is an unusual connective tissue that is characterized by its watery extracellular matrix called plasma. Plasma consists of a dilute solution of ions and dissolved organic molecules, including a large variety of soluble proteins. Name four types of protein fibers found in connective tissue matrix and give the characteristics of each.

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The carrier then releases the transported molecule into the opposite compartment translational medicine generic kemadrin 5 mg amex, having brought it through the membrane without creating a continuous connection between the extracellular and intracellular compartments. Carrier proteins can be divided into two categories according to the energy source that powers the transport. Extracellular fluid Passage open to one side Molecule to be transported Intracellular fluid Gate closed Carrier Membrane (a) Carrier proteins, like the canal illustrated, never form a continuous passageway between the extracellular and intracellular fluids. Closed gate Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Transition state with both gates closed Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Passage open to other side Gate closed 166 chapTer 5 Membrane Dynamics fig. The transported molecules move down their concentration gradient, the process requires no input of outside energy, and net movement stops at equilibrium, when the concentration inside the cell equals the concentration outside the cell (fig. Facilitated diffusion carriers always transport molecules down their concentration gradient. Cells in which facilitated diffusion takes place can avoid reaching equilibrium by keeping the concentration of substrate in the cell low. Addition of the phosphate group prevents build-up of glucose inside the cell and also prevents glucose from leaving the cell. Facilitated Diffusion Uses Carrier Proteins Some polar molecules appear to move into and out of cells by diffusion, even though we know from their chemical properties that they are unable to pass easily through the lipid core of the cell membrane. The solution to this seeming contradiction is that these polar molecules cross the cell membrane by facilitated diffusion, with the aid of specific carriers. Sugars and amino acids are examples of molecules that enter or leave cells using facilitated diffusion. Liver cells (hepatocytes) are able to convert glycogen to glucose, thereby making the intracellular glucose concentration higher than the extracellular glucose concentration. Protein-Mediated Transport 167 Active Transport Moves Substances against Their Concentration Gradients Active transport is a process that moves molecules against their concentration gradient-that is, from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration. Rather than creating an equilibrium state, where the concentration of the molecule is equal throughout the system, active transport creates a state of disequilibrium by making concentration differences more pronounced. The mechanism for both types of active transport appears to be similar to that for facilitated diffusion. A substrate to be transported binds to a membrane carrier and the carrier then changes conformation, releasing the substrate into the opposite compartment. Active transport differs from facilitated diffusion because the conformation change in the carrier protein requires energy input. Primary Active Transporters Type of Transport Antiport Uniport Uniport Antiport secondary active Transport the sodium concentration gradient, with Na+ concentration high in the extracellular fluid and low inside the cell, is a source of potential energy that the cell can harness for other functions. For example, nerve cells use the sodium gradient to transmit electrical signals, and epithelial cells use it to drive the uptake of nutrients, ions, and water.

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Customer Reviews

Fraser, 43 years: This process is facilitated by the presence of myoglobin, a red oxygen-binding pigment with a high affinity for oxygen. For example, an organelle might contain substances that could be harmful to the cell, such as digestive enzymes.

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Cyrus, 51 years: Type A intercalated cells are active in acidosis and type B cells active in alkalosis. A few areas of the brain lack a functional blood-brain barrier, and their capillaries have leaky endothelium like most of the rest of the body.

Hurit, 65 years: In this running problem, you learned about some current techniques for diagnosing and treating heart attacks. A molecule positioned on the highconcentration side of a concentration gradient stores potential energy because it has the potential energy to move down the gradient.

Grim, 42 years: We will use the term reflex control to mean any long-distance pathway that uses the nervous system, endocrine system, or both. It is characterized by a variety of neurological complaints, including fatigue, muscle weakness, difficulty walking, and loss of vision.

Grimboll, 30 years: For both minerals, a decrease in body concentrations of the mineral leads to enhanced uptake at the intestine. In this chapter and the next, we apply the physics of fluid flow to the cardiovascular system.

Einar, 61 years: The pons acts as a relay station for information between the cerebellum and cerebrum. The highest blood pressure is seen in the, and the lowest in the.

Goose, 26 years: When the lancet pierced his fingertip and he saw the drop of bright red blood well up, the room started to spin, and then everything went black. The close structural similarity among steroid hormones means that the binding sites on their receptors are also similar, leading to crossover effects when one steroid binds to the receptor for a related molecule.